Glossary

Antonie Sminck Pitloo: Antonie Sminck Pitloo (1790–1837 CE) was a Dutch-Italian painter known for his contributions to landscape painting, particularly as a prominent figure in the School of Posillipo in Naples. His work is characterized by atmospheric depictions of Italian scenery, blending realism with romantic elements.

Appian Way (Via Appia): The Appian Way was one of the most important roadways in and out of Rome, bringing travelers to and from the ancient region of Brundisium (modern Brindisi). This road, constructed by Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 BCE, was crucial for bringing supplies into the city of Rome.

Appius Claudius Caecus: Appius Claudius Caecus (312 - 279 BCE) was a famous Roman statesman who is most well known for his efforts to construct the major road known as Via Appia as well as Rome’s first major aqueduct, the Aqua Appia. He served as Roman censor, consul, and briefly as dictator where he made reforms that gave more rights to the lower classes of Rome.

Archangel Michael: Archangel Michael is a prominent figure in Christian traditions, revered as a warrior and protector who leads the heavenly armies against the forces of evil. Often depicted with a sword or scales, Michael is considered the chief of the archangels and a symbol of divine justice and strength.

Aurelian Walls: The Aurelian Walls are a set of defensive fortifications built around Rome between 271 - 275 CE by Emperor Aurelian to protect the city from external threats during a period of instability. Stretching over 19 kilometers, these walls remained a crucial part of Rome’s defense system for centuries, reflecting the shift from expansion to protection in the late Roman Empire

Battle of the Milvian Bridge: The Battle of the Milvian Bridge was one of the seminal battles in both Roman history and the history of Christianity as it cemented the reign of Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome. As Constantine lay siege to Rome in 312 CE, he reportedly witnessed a vision of the Christian cross alongside the words “in this you shall conquer.” The historian Eusebius noted that with this inspiration, Constantine instructed his soldiers to draw the cross on their shields and led them to victory at the Milvian Bridge. Thus, putting him on the trajectory to be the sole emperor of Rome.

Caelian Hill: The Caelian Hill is one of the Seven Hills of Rome. It was largely residentially and rested outside the historical Servian Walls, but later within the Aurelian Walls once they were constructed in 270 CE.

Campo Marzio: Campo Marzio, or the Field of Mars, was an ancient area in Rome originally used as a military training ground and later developed into a hub for public buildings, temples, and monuments. By the late Republic and Imperial periods, it became a vibrant district for gatherings, sporting events, and political assemblies.

Capriccio: A capriccio is a genre of painting that combines architectural elements, often fantastical or imaginary, with landscape settings. These works are characterized by their whimsical and imaginative nature, blending real structures with fictitious or exaggerated ones, creating a sense of artistic freedom rather than adhering to precise realism.

Castor and Pollux: Castor and Pollux are the twin brother demi-gods of Roman mythology. They were half brothers, one of Zeus and Leda and the other of mythic Spartan king Tyndareus and Leda. Castor and Pollux were eventually endowed with immortality after Pollux, the son of Zeus, asked for his immortality to be shared with Pollux – causing them to rise to the Heavens and become the constellation Gemini (“twins” in English).

Cella: A cella (plural: cellae) is the internal chamber of a Roman or Greek temple that most often houses the likeness of the temple’s deity.

Charles V and the 1527 Sack of Rome: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor from 1519 - 1556 CE, indirectly caused the 1527 Sack of Rome when his unpaid, mutinous troops invaded and plundered the city, devastating it for months. The attack, a result of conflicts between Charles and Pope Clement VII during the Italian Wars, marked the end of the Renaissance papacy's political power and dominance in Italy.

Chiaroscuro: Chiaroscuro, derived from the Italian words "chiaro" (light) and "scuro" (dark), refers to the artistic technique of using strong contrasts between light and shadow to create the illusion of volume and three-dimensionality in two-dimensional works of art. This technique was popularized during the Renaissance.

Commedia dell'arte: A form of Italian theater originating in the 16th century, known for its improvised performances, stock characters, and exaggerated masks. It often involved themes of love, mischief, and satire, with actors adapting their routines to engage audiences directly.

Constantius II: Flavius Julius Constantius II was the son of Emperor Constantine and emperor of the Roman Empire from 331 - 367 CE. He was a Christian emperor, and his rule was marked by frequent civil and social upheaval.

Cult of Hercules: According to mythology, the death of the hero Hercules brought about his worship as a guardian of property, entrances, and travelers. Farmers and traders brought money to his temples to secure prosperous trade and crops.

Cypress Motif: The cypress tree is used throughout Roman literature as a symbol associated with death and funerals. It may have had this association because of its use to mask the smell of death and decay.

Edgar Allan Poe: Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) was an American writer and poet famed for his Gothic tales and poems, such as The Tell-Tale Heart and The Raven, which explore themes of horror, mystery, and the macabre. Poe’s work laid the foundation for modern detective fiction and is celebrated for its intense atmosphere and psychological depth.

Egeria (Nymph): Egeria is a nymph in Roman mythology who was a divine consort and advisor to King Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, guiding him in establishing many of Rome's religious and legal customs. Associated with wisdom, prophecy, and sacred springs, Egeria was revered as a protective and nurturing figure in Roman tradition.

Emperor Aurelian: Lucius Domitius Aurelianus was a Roman emperor who reigned from 270 - 275 CE. As emperor during the Crisis of the Third Century, he reunited the Roman Empire following an unprecedented series of military victories against internal revolt and external invasion. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome. His successes in reuniting the empire earned him the title “Restitutor Orbis,” or “Restorer of the World.”

Emperor Galba: Servius Galba (3 BCE–69 CE) was a Roman emperor who ruled for seven months in 68–69 CE during the Year of the Four Emperors, following the downfall of Nero. Known for his strictness and unpopularity with both the Roman legions and elite, his brief reign ended when he was assassinated in a coup led by his successor, Otho.

Emperor Honorius: Flavius Honorius co-ruled the western half of the Roman Empire from 393 - 423 CE alongside his brother, Arcadius, who ruled the eastern territories. Honorius ruled during a turbulent time in the empire’s history, as his rule witnessed the abandonment of Roman Britain in 407 CE and, in 410 CE, he oversaw the empire during the first sack of the City of Rome in nearly 700 years. This sack led to many of the famous monuments in the city being fortified against attack, including Hadrian’s Mausoleum.

Engraving: Engraving is a printmaking process in which the artist directly carving into the surface of a metal plate with a sharp tool called a burin.

Esquiline Hill: The Esquiline Hill is one of the Seven Hills of Rome, historically known as a residential area for both the wealthy and lower classes in ancient times.

Etching: Etching is a printmaking process where an artist uses acid to carve an image into a metal plate.

Etruscans: The Etruscans were a group of proto-Italic peoples who ruled over the modern region of Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio. Although predating the Romans and greatly influencing their culture and society, the Etruscans remain a partial mystery, as little of their art and writing remain. After usurping the Etruscans as the dominant power in the Italian Peninsula, the Romans adopted many of their art and building practices, such as deep colonnaded porches for their temples. The full extent of their influence on Roman art, however, remains debated by scholars.

Frieze: A frieze is a horizontal decorative band, often found on the exterior or interior walls of classical buildings, positioned between the architrave and the cornice. Typically adorned with sculpted reliefs or painted designs, it serves both a structural and ornamental purpose in architecture.

Gaius Maecenas: Gaius Cilnius Maecenas (70 - 8 BCE) was a well known friend and political advisor to Augustus Caesar. According to contemporaries like Seneca, Maecenas was known for his lavish lifestyle.

Gens Cornelii: The gens Cornelii were of the earliest and most prominent patrician families in Ancient Rome. Among the most famous members of the clan were the Scipios, who famously led Roman armies in battle against Carthage in the Punic War. Most famously, Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal Barca to stop the Carthiginian invasion of the Italian Peninsula in the Second Punic War.

Gens: In ancient Rome, a gens (plural: gentes) was a clan or group of families who shared a common name and claimed descent from a common ancestor. The members of a gens were linked by blood ties, shared religious practices, and social responsibilities. The gens name, or nomen, was passed down through the male line, and all members of the group used it as part of their full name. Gentes played a significant role in Roman political, social, and religious life, often acting as powerful political factions.

George Dance the Younger: George Dance the Younger (1741–1825) was an English architect and a leading figure in the neoclassical movement, best known for his design of the Newgate Prison and the facade of London's Guildhall.

George Orwell: George Orwell (1903–1950) was a British writer and critic best known for his dystopian novels 1984 and Animal Farm, which explore themes of totalitarianism, oppression, and the dangers of unchecked political power. His works have had a lasting impact on discussions around censorship, surveillance, and freedom.

Gracchi Brothers: Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were Roman political reformers in the 2nd century BCE who sought to address economic inequality by redistributing land to Rome’s poor. Their populist reforms sparked intense opposition from the Roman Senate, leading to their violent deaths and contributing to the political instability that eventually led to the fall of the Roman Republic.

Great Illyrian Revolt: The Great Illyrian Revolt (6–9 CE) was a large-scale uprising of several Illyrian tribes against Roman rule in the Balkans, driven by heavy taxation and conscription. Despite initial successes, the rebellion was ultimately crushed by Roman forces, consolidating Rome’s control over the region and marking one of the largest military efforts of Emperor Augustus's reign.

Herculaneum and Pompeii: Herculaneum and Pompeii were two Ancient Roman settlements that were destroyed in 79 CE during the most famous eruption of nearby volcano Mount Vesuvius. Since excavation began in the 18th Century, the two Ancient cities have been a well-known tourist destination for the well preserved remains of buildings buried for over a millennium under volcanic ash.

Hercules Victor: Hercules Victor, also known as Hercules Invictus, was a Roman adaptation of the Greek hero Heracles, worshiped as a god of strength, victory, and protection. He was honored with temples symbolizing his role as a guardian of Rome and its military successes.

Herodes Atticus: Herodes Atticus (101–177 CE) was a wealthy Greek aristocrat, orator, and philosopher who served as a Roman senator and a prominent patron of public works, funding public monuments and structures. Known for his immense contributions to Greek culture under Roman rule, he blended Hellenistic and Roman traditions.

Horace Walpole: Horace Walpole (1717–1797) was an English writer, historian, and politician, known for his novel The Castle of Otranto, which is credited as the first Gothic novel and helped popularize Gothic themes in literature. His fascination with medievalism and architecture is also evident in his design of Strawberry Hill House, a key example of Gothic Revival architecture.

Horace: Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65–8 BCE), commonly known as Horace, was a leading Roman lyric poet during the reign of Augustus, renowned for his Odes, Satires, and Epistles, which explored themes of philosophy, friendship, and the art of living well.

Horti Liciniani: The Horti Liciniani were luxurious gardens in ancient Rome, belonging to the Gens Licinia. The gardens included lavish structures and were renowned for their beauty and grandeur, famously serving as a retreat for Emperor Gallienus in the 3rd Century CE.

Humanism: An intellectual and cultural movement of the Renaissance that emphasized human potential, individual dignity, and the study of classical texts. Humanists valued rational thought, education, and the arts, influencing both personal development and societal progress.

Jan Asselijn: Jan Asselijn (1610 - 1652CE) was a Dutch Golden Age painter known for his Italian landscapes, genre scenes, and historical works, heavily influenced by his time in Rome and its ancient landscapes.

Johann Goethe: Johann Goethe was an 18th century German writer and intellectual. He is most well known for his play Faust.

Johann Winckelmann: Johann Winckelmann (1717–1768 CE) was a German art historian and archaeologist, often regarded as the father of modern art history and classical archaeology. His writings on the aesthetics of ancient Greek and Roman art greatly influenced the development of neoclassicism in Europe.

John Wilton-Ely: John Wilton-Ely (1937-) is a prominent British art historian and scholar, renowned for his extensive research on the works of the Italian engraver Giovanni Battista Piranesi. His publications, including The Mind and Art of Giovanni Battista Piranesi, have contributed significantly to the study of Piranesi's influence on neoclassical art and architecture.

Julio-Claudian Dynasty: The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BCE - 68 CE) was the first dynasty of emperors to rule Rome following the civil war of the Second Triumvirate (43 - 32 BCE). Starting with the accession of the famed Emperor Augustus Caesar to the throne, the Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted through five emperors, ending with the death of the infamous Emperor Nero.

King Numa Pompilius: Numa Pompilius, the mythical second king of Rome (715–673 BCE), is credited with founding many of Rome's key religious and legal institutions. Numa is said to have established Rome’s priesthoods, the Vestal Virgins, and important rituals that shaped early Roman religion and governance.

Knights of the Golden Spur: A Knight of the Golden Spur is a knighthood bequeathed upon anyone who the Catholic Church perceives to have served it either through force of arms or work of art. In recognition of his work at Santa Maria del Priorato, Pope Clement XIII conferred upon Piranesi the title of Knight of the Golden Spurs by papal decree in January 1767. Over time, this order has fallen out of service and with the death of its final member in 2019, is considered dormant.

Leo the Great: Pope Leo the Great (c. 400–461 CE) was the Bishop of Rome from 440 to 461 CE and is renowned for his role in shaping the papacy’s authority and doctrine during the early Christian Church. He is best known for his theological defense of Christ’s dual nature and for persuading Attila the Hun to turn away from attacking Rome.

Ludovico Ludovisi: Ludovico Ludovisi (1595–1632CE) was an influential Italian archbishop and cardinal, best known for his role as a patron of the arts and his close association with his uncle, Pope Gregory XV. As a major figure in the Counter-Reformation, he helped shape church policies and was a notable collector of classical antiquities, which later became part of the renowned Ludovisi Collection.

M.C. Escher: M.C. Escher (1898–1972) was a Dutch graphic artist known for his mathematically inspired works featuring impossible structures, tessellations, and explorations of perspective, such as Relativity and Drawing Hands.

Magna Graecia: Magna Graecia, translated as Greater Greece in English, described the Ancient Greek settlements which lay outside of the Greek mainland. Specifically, Magna Graecia came to describe the region of Southern Italy where many Greek colonists had settled prior to the expansion of the Roman Empire. As one of the earliest regions conquered by Rome, it reflected an influential cultural mixing space where early Roman culture mixed with Hellenic culture.

Marcus Licinius Crassus: Serving as one of the three Roman statesmen to make up the First Triumvirate (60 - 53 BCE), Marcus Licinius Crassus (115 - 53 BCE) was famously known as the most wealthy Roman of Rome’s Republican Era. With Pliny the Elder estimating his worth to be 200 million sesterces, alongside his command of armies, Crassus was widely viewed as one of the most influential Romans of his time.

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (63–12 BCE) was a Roman general, statesman, and close friend of Emperor Augustus, instrumental in securing key military victories such as the Battle of Actium (31 BCE), which established Augustus's rule. A skilled architect and engineer, Agrippa also oversaw numerous public works in Rome, including aqueducts and baths, greatly enhancing the city's infrastructure.

Maxentius: Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (283 - 312 CE) served as co-emperor during the period of the Roman Tetrarchy from 306 - 312 CE. Following a long civil war pitting each of the tetrarchs against one another, Maxentius was defeated by Constantine during the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 CE), leading to the end of the tetrarchy.

Michel Foucault: Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French philosopher and social theorist known for his critical studies of power, knowledge, and social institutions, particularly in works like Discipline and Punish and The History of Sexuality. His theories on power dynamics and societal structures have had a profound influence on fields like sociology, psychology, and political theory.

Neoclassicism: Neoclassicism is an 18th- and early 19th-century artistic and cultural movement that drew inspiration from the art, architecture, and ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing simplicity, symmetry, and proportion. It emerged as a reaction against the ornate Rococo style and became associated with Enlightenment values, influencing painting, sculpture, architecture, and literature.

Octavia: Octavia (also known as Octavia the Younger) was the older sister of Octavius, the first emperor of Rome, and the fourth wife of Mark Antony. Octavia held a powerful role in Roman polity, inhabiting a role that was relatively uncommon for women of the era.

Palatine Hill: The Palatine Hill is one of the Seven Hills of Rome and holds great historical significance as the legendary birthplace of the city, where Romulus is said to have founded Rome in 753 BCE. It later became the center of Roman imperial power, home to the palaces of emperors, and offers extensive archaeological remains that showcase the grandeur of ancient Roman civilization.

Palazzo dei Conservatori: The Palazzo dei Conservatori is a Renaissance palace on Rome's Capitoline Hill, designed by Michelangelo in the mid-16th century, known for its classical facade and grand interiors. It now houses part of the Capitoline Museums, featuring important collections of Roman sculptures, Renaissance art, and historical artifacts.

Palazzo Nuovo: The Palazzo Nuovo is a 17th-century building on Rome's Capitoline Hill, constructed to mirror the Palazzo dei Conservatori and complete Michelangelo's architectural vision for the Capitoline Square. Today, it is part of the Capitoline Museums, housing an extensive collection of Roman sculptures, including iconic works like the Dying Gaul and Capitoline Venus.

Palazzo Senatorio: The Palazzo Senatorio is a historic palace on Rome's Capitoline Hill, originally built in the 12th century and redesigned by Michelangelo in the 16th century during the Renaissance. Serving as the seat of the Roman Senate in medieval times, it now houses the city’s municipal government.

Passetto di Borgo: The Passetto di Borgo is an elevated, fortified corridor in Rome that links Vatican City to Castel Sant'Angelo, originally built in 1277 CE as an escape route for the pope in times of danger. It has been used throughout history as a means of papal refuge during sieges and invasions, most notably by Pope Clement VII during the Sack of Rome in 1527.

Penrose Stairs: The Penrose Stairs, also known as the "Impossible Staircase," is an optical illusion depicting a staircase that appears to ascend or descend endlessly, looping back on itself in a physically impossible way. Created by Lionel and Roger Penrose, it became famous through the artwork of M.C. Escher, who incorporated it into his iconic lithograph Ascending and Descending.

Percy Bysshe Shelley: Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822 CE) was a prominent English Romantic poet known for his ideas on politics, religion, and society including Ode to the West Wind and Prometheus Unbound.

Piazza del Campidoglio: Completed in the 16th Century, the Piazza del Campidoglio is the public square that sits atop the modern Capitoline Hill in Rome. On it rests the Palazzo Senatorio, Palazzo dei Conservatori and the Palazzo Nuovo.

Piranesi’s Prima Parte di Architettura, e Prospettive: Created in 1743, Piranesi’s Prima Parte di Architetture e Prospettive is a collection of twelve etchings of imaginary buildings, which reflects the rigid and precise etching techniques of his early training, contrasting with the lighter, more painterly style he adopted in later works.

Pliny the Elder: A Roman author, naturalist, and military commander, Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) is best known for his Natural History, a comprehensive 37-volume encyclopedia covering topics like astronomy, geography, zoology, and botany. His work remains a vital source of information on ancient Roman knowledge and the natural world.

Ponte Sant'Angelo: Ponte Sant'Angelo is a Roman bridge in Rome, built by Emperor Hadrian in 134 CE to connect the city with his mausoleum, now known as Castel Sant'Angelo.

Pope Benedict XIV: Pope Benedict XIV (1675 - 1758 CE) was pope from 1740 to 1758, known for his intellectualism and efforts to reform Church administration. He is also remembered for encouraging the arts and advancing dialogue between the Catholic Church and Enlightenment thinkers.

Pope Clement VII: Pope Clement VII (1478–1534 CE) was pope from 1523 to 1534, known for his tumultuous papacy during which the Protestant Reformation gained momentum and Rome was sacked in 1527.

Pope Clement XI: Pope Clement XI (1649 - 1721 CE) served as pope from 1700 to 1721, notable for his efforts to navigate the Church through the War of the Spanish Succession and his involvement in doctrinal disputes, such as the condemnation of Jansenism. He is also known for archeological excavations of Roman catacombs and early Christian sites in Rome.

Pope Clement XIII: Pope Clement XIII (1693 - 1769 CE) was pope from 1758 - 1769 CE, known for his strong defense of the Jesuit order amid growing pressures for its suppression. His papacy was marked by resistance to Enlightenment ideas and efforts to maintain the Church's traditional authority against secular influences.

Pope Gregory the Great: Pope Gregory I, also known as Gregory the Great (c. 540–604 CE), was a pivotal figure in the early medieval Church, known for his extensive writings, liturgical reforms, and efforts to consolidate papal authority.

Pope Nicholas III: Pope Nicholas III (1216–1280 CE) served as pope from 1277 to 1280 and was known for his efforts to strengthen papal authority and reform the administration of the Papal States. He is also notable for increasing the influence of his family, the Orsini, and for being placed in the eighth circle of Dante's Inferno for simony.

Porta San Sebastiano: Constructed in 270 CE by Emperor Aurelian, the Porta San Sebastiano is the oldest and most well preserved gate to remain in the Aurelian Walls. Adapted piecemeal over the centuries, it remains today as a testament to the engineering abilities of the Romans.

Pronaos: The pronaos is the entrance or front porch of an ancient Greek or Roman temple, typically enclosed by a row of columns and leading to the main sanctuary (naos). It serves as a transitional space between the exterior of the temple and the inner chamber where the deity's statue is housed.

Ray Bradbury: Ray Bradbury (1920–2012) was an American author celebrated for his contributions to science fiction, particularly in works like Fahrenheit 451 and The Martian Chronicles, which explore themes of censorship, technology, and humanity's relationship with progress. His imaginative style and social commentary have made his works timeless explorations of future possibilities and ethical dilemmas.

Saint Paul the Apostle: Named Saul prior to his baptism, Paul the Apostle was a key figure in early Christianity whose letters (Epistles) to various churches form a significant part of the New Testament. As a Roman citizen by birth, Paul was able to travel around the Roman world to evangelize and find new converts.

Sallust: Gaius Sallustius Crispus (86–35 BCE), commonly known as Sallust, was a Roman historian and politician known for his works The Conspiracy of Catiline and The Jugurthine War, which focused on corruption, moral decline, and political intrigue in late Republican Rome. His writings are valued for their critical insight into Rome’s internal conflicts during its transition from Republic to Empire.

Sancta Sanctorum: The Sancta Sanctorum, meaning "Holy of Holies," is a sacred chapel located within the Lateran Palace in Rome, traditionally considered one of the most venerated Christian relic sites. Originally part of the private papal chapel, it houses important relics, including a highly revered image of Christ, and was central to medieval pilgrimage.

Second Punic War: The Second Punic War (218–201 BCE) was a major conflict between Rome and Carthage, marked by the Carthaginian general Hannibal's daring invasion of Italy. Despite initial victories, Carthage ultimately lost the war, leading to Rome's dominance over the western Mediterranean and the eventual downfall of Carthage.

Second Samnite War: The Second Samnite War (326–304 BCE) was a war between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, an Italic people, as Rome sought to expand its influence over central and southern Italy. The war, marked by notable Roman defeats like the Battle of the Caudine Forks, eventually ended in a Roman victory, solidifying Rome's dominance in the region.

Spina: The central wall or barrier that divided a Roman circus. The spina could be decorated at its top with an obelisk, statue, or other monuments.

Statius: Publius Papinius Statius (45 - 96 CE) was a Roman poet of the Silver Age, best known for his epic poem Thebaid, which recounts the mythological conflict between the sons of Oedipus. He also wrote the unfinished Achilleid and a collection of shorter poems, Silvae, which provide insight into the daily life and culture of imperial Rome.

Statius’ Silvae: This collection of 32 poems spread across 5 separate books details everyday life of Romans during the rule of Emperor Domitian. Likely composed between 89 - 96 CE, the book features poetry written in hexameters, hendecasyllables, and lyric meters that would feature aspects of Roman life including phrases like the Via Appia as the “regina viarum,” or queen of long roads.

Stucco: Stucco is a construction material made from aggregate materials like chalk or limestone, a binder like lime or cement, and water. This material is used throughout historical and modern architecture as a decorative and structural material due to its low cost and fast application.

Sublime: The Sublime art movement, rooted in 18th- and 19th-century Romanticism, emphasizes the awe-inspiring, overwhelming power of nature and human emotion, often evoking feelings of terror, vastness, and beauty.

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus: First constructed under the guidance of Etruscan artisans in 509 BCE, the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was one of the most important buildings in Ancient Rome. It earned this role by serving as the final stop on Roman triumphal parades celebrating the triumph of emperors in military conquest. Despite four separate fires necessitating its reconstruction, the temple remained mostly intact for over 1000 years – lasting until the early Middle Ages. The last of its ruins were demolished in 1447 CE to make room for the Palazzo Caffarelli.

Temple of Minerva Medica: Though falsely attributed to the Nymphaeum of Alexander in the Horti Liciniani, the original Temple of Minerva Medica was thought to be constructed on top of the Esquiline Hill during the Republican Era of Rome. In the form of Medica Minerva, the deity was believed to be the goddess of physicians and medical practice.

Tetrarchy: The Tetrarchy describes the Roman Empire’s system of governance from 293 - 312 CE. Originally instituted by Diocletian (242 - 312 CE), the Tetrarchy split the empire into east and west and created four new co-emperors, with a senior Augustus and junior Caesar ruling each half. This reform was meant to make ruling the empire more manageable. Within a generation, however, the Tetrarchy collapsed as multiple claimants fought over sole rule of the empire.

The Grand Tour: The Grand Tour describes the 19th Century journey taken by affluent young men across sites in Europe with cultural or historical relevance. This journey was meant to supplement a classical education, allowing for the traveler to gain real world exposure to ancient sites. On these trips, travelers would purchase memorabilia to remember their travels, including copies of Piranesi’s Views of Rome.

Trevi Fountain: The Trevi Fountain is an iconic Baroque monument in Rome, completed in 1762 with a dramatic design by Nicola Salvi, featuring Neptune at its center, surrounded by allegorical figures and dynamic sculptures. Its grand scale and intricate architectural detail resonate with the dramatic and immersive style of Giovanni Battista Piranesi, whose etchings often capture the majesty and monumental spirit of Roman architecture.

Twelve Tables: The Twelve Tables were among the first legal writings to be codified during the Era of the Roman Republic. Dating back to 451 BCE, this legal code was written to establish the legal rights, responsibilities, and legal codes that Roman citizens were expected to follow. Publicly displayed in the Roman Forum, the Twelve Tables formed the backbone of Roman law throughout Rome’s history.

Valle della Caffarella: The Valle della Caffarella is a large public park in modern Rome that contains portions of the Via Appia and important ancient ruins.

Veduta: Veduta, meaning ‘views’ in Italian, are a type of painting commonly used to depict the cityscapes of Italy. Veduta often depicted the architectural elements of Italian cities like Rome. Piranesi used this artistic style to depict the Ancient Roman ruins.

Via Salaria: The Via Salaria, translating to the “Salt Road” in English, was known for bringing trade from the salt rich marshes at the mouth of the Tiber River. This route led from Rome to the east Coast of the Italian Peninsula.

Vitruvius: Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (1st Century BCE) was a Roman architect and engineer best known for his treatise De Architectura, a ten-book work covering various aspects of architecture, engineering, and urban planning. His principles of symmetry, proportion, and functionality in building design greatly influenced Renaissance architects, including Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man.

War of the Tetrarchy: The War of the Tetrarchy (306 - 324 CE) describes the conflict that ended the Tetrarchy. The war began as Maxentius usurped the title of Augustus from Severus in 306 CE. By 311 CE, Maxentius had declared war on Constantine. Against his advisors, Constantine invaded Italy in 312 CE, taking Rome in the process, killing Maxentius, and securing the western half of the Empire under his rule. After a long campaign, Constantine defeated the final Tetrarch Licinius in 324 CE, securing his rule as sole emperor of Rome.